Singapore - a bustling modern metropolis pioneering the ambitious vision of biophilic urbanism. Today, we shall examine how this highly urbanized and densely populated island-state transformed into a biodiverse 'City in a Garden'.
The iconic Gardens By The Bay in the heart of Singapore's Marina Bay financial district (Source: Nick Fewings)
The Wild City
Singapore's wild inhabitants
Despite being half the size of London with a population of 5.7 million, this tropical island-state is home to a surprising diversity of wildlife and habitats.
Singapore is home to an impressive diversity of flora and fauna despite its small size. (Source: National Parks Board)
Gallery: Singapore's wild inhabitants
Raffles banded langur (Presbytis femoralis); Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata); Oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris); Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica); Malayan colugo (Galeopterus variegatus); King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah); Malayan water monitor (Varanus salvator); Singapore freshwater crab (Johora singaporensis); Lesser mousedeer (Tragulus kanchil) (Source: National Parks Board)
Perhaps the most famous and charismatic of Singapore's wild residents are smooth-coated otters, which made a remarkable recovery in Singapore after a 30-year absence and have become a world-renowned beacon of success that defines Singapore's conservation efforts.
The return of smooth-coated otters (Lutrogale perspicillata) to residential and business districts is often touted as the pinnacle of Singapore's conservation success stories (Source: BBC)
Check out this short featurette introducing a few charming faces of Singapore's wild side, or watch this documentary showcasing the fascinating biodiversity that this wild city offers.
The wild inhabitants of the Singapore Botanical Gardens in the heart of the city (Source: BBC)
From a 'Garden City' to a 'City in a Garden'
Charting Singapore's strategies and successes
Since independence, political will towards creating a clean and green city has been unwavering. Public campaigns on environmental awareness and greening efforts began in 1963, and the 'Garden City' model became the foundation for town planning through to the 2000s.
The 'Garden City' model formed the cornerstone of Singapore's town planning philosophy since independence (Source: The Homage Project)
Biodiversity has always been a core consideration for planning policies. The Singapore government formalized this commitment in the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which outlines comprehensive strategies to conserve native biodiversity and ensures that Singapore's ecological stability is not neglected during discussions on national planning.
A role model for biophilic urbanism worldwide, Singapore designed the Singapore Index on Cities Biodiversity with the Convention of Biological Diversity, a holistic evaluation framework which scores cities across 23 indicators on conservation efforts.
In 2012, Singapore unveiled the next step in its Green Plan:
From a 'Garden City' to a 'City in a Garden'
This change in rhetoric transcends simple wordplay - it represents a paradigm shift in Singapore's planning philosophy. Instead of incorporating greenery as a complementary accessory in neighbourhoods, Singapore now strives to build its city around nature, establishing the state's biocentric vision of safeguarding and promoting nature.
We now examine some key strategies that Singapore adopted to create a biophilic city.
1. Biodiverse Neighbourhoods and Buildings
Singapore's public housing roadmap is grounded heavily in its Biophilic Town Framework, embodying a 'nature-centric' philosophy focusing on integrating biodiverse greenspaces into residential estates.
Singapore's Biophilic Town Framework includes features specifically designed to attract urban biodiversity including dragonfly ponds, butterfly gardens and bird sanctuaries (Source: Housing and Development Board)
Besides greening neighbourhoods, the ubiquity of high-rise buildings across Singapore's cityscape compelled planners to explore skyrise greenery. Vertical gardens reduce urban heat island effects while promoting biodiversity.
Gallery: Singapore's vertical gardens Left: ParkRoyal Hotel on Pickering (Source: The Telegraph); Middle: Ocean Financial Centre, which previously held the record for the world's largest vertical garden (Source: The Straits Times); Right: The Tree House condominium, the current record-holder for the world's largest vertical garden (Source: The Straits Times)
Singapore also conducts habitat restoration for urban areas previously devoid of biodiversity. The Kallang River running through Bishan Park was ecologically restored using soil bioengineering techniques, and now provides fertile fishing grounds for resident otters.
After careful habitat restoration, Bishan Park (left; Source: Ramboll Group) is now home to a successful family of otters known as the Bishan Otters (right; Source: The Straits Times)
2. Safeguarding key nature reserves and endemic wildlife
The National Parks Board manages Singapore's nature reserves, which provide safe refugia for elusive wildlife threatened by rapid urbanization.
Four nature reserves in Singapore with critical conservation value identified for stringent biodiversity monitoring efforts (Source: National Parks Board)
Singapore also focuses on enhancing buffer zones around these reserves to insulate forest cores and vulnerable wildlife from edge effects of urbanization.
Smaller nature parks around the Central Catchment Nature Reserve serve as ecological buffers that shield the forest core from edge effects of urbanization (Source: National Parks Board)
Singapore also conducts species recovery projects for threatened wildlife. The Singapore Hornbill Project, which guided reintroduction programs of endangered hornbills using artificial nestboxes and GPS tracking, saw considerable success as hornbills gradually re-established stable populations across the island.
Oriental pied hornbills (Anthracoceros albirostris) using an artificial nestbox installed through the Singapore Hornbill Project (Source: Bird Ecology Study Group)
3. Connecting urban forests
As mentioned in earlier posts, increasing the connectivity of urban forests enhances their ecological resilience and value.
A central component of Singapore's biophilic strategy is a continuous tree canopy over all major roads nationwide. These efforts are strategically planned to mimic natural rainforest structures, attract diverse species, and facilitate movement of wildlife between neighbourhoods.
Each layer of Singapore's urban tree canopy is designed to attract a wide diversity of wildlife while mimicking the ecological functions and connectivity of a natural rainforest (Source: National Parks Board)
A continuous tree canopy over East Coast Parkway, one of Singapore's major highways (Source: National Parks Board)
This ambitious undertaking solidified Singapore's position as the city with the second-highest canopy cover in the world.
According to a study by the MIT Senseable City Lab, Singapore has a Green View Index of 29.3% and is the city with the second-largest green canopy in the world (Source: Treepedia)
Singapore also boasts a nationwide Park Connector Network, which links major greenspaces and neighbourhoods with over 300km of green pathways - creating uninterrupted green corridors for both parkgoers and wildlife.
Singapore completed 300km of Park Connectors island-wide by 2020, providing continuous green corridors for both people and wildlife (Source: National Parks Board)
One part of Singapore's 300km network of Park Connectors (Source: The Straits Times)
For nature reserves fragmented by major roads, Singapore constructed wildlife bridges to reduce roadkill rates and encourage habitat expansion of endangered wildlife. These range from rope bridges for arboreal mammals to forested wildlife bridges.
Gallery: Wildlife bridges in Singapore
Image 1: Eco-Link Bridge connecting two major nature reserves over the Bukit Timah expressway (Source: National Parks Board);
Image 2: Mandai Wildlife Bridge reconnecting two fragmented patches of the Upper Seletar forests (Source: Mandai Park Holdings);
Image 3: A critically-endangered Raffles banded langur crossing a rope bridge in Thomson Nature Park (Source: Mothership);
Image 4: Troop of long-tailed macaques crossing a rope bridge over Mandai Lake Road (Source: Mandai Park Holdings);
Image 5: Malayan colugo using an artificial beam as a launchpad to glide across roads (Source: Mandai Park Holdings)
Is the road always smooth-sailing?
Challenges of Singapore's biophilic vision
1. Balancing the needs of development and conservation
Perhaps Singapore's biggest hurdle towards nature-centricity is its perpetual need for development and restrictive land scarcity. Singapore faces many situations where it confronts the dualism of development and conservation, and decisions and compromises must be made to support a growing population and economy.
One prominent example of this contention is the controversy surrounding the Cross-Island Line - a planned expansion of Singapore's rail network which would run below Singapore's largest nature reserve, risking further habitat fragmentation and degradation. Despite vehement opposition from nature groups, the project was eventually approved as a proposed alternative route around the reserve was deemed prohibitively costly.
After multiple environmental impact assessments and lengthy discussions with various stakeholders including nature advocacy groups, the Cross Island Line running under the Central Catchment Nature Reserve was eventually approved for construction (Source: Channel NewsAsia)
2. Locals and wildlife
Singaporeans generally recognize the importance of biodiversity conservation in the city. Surveys indicate a preference for natural landscapes over manicured gardens in public parks, and locals recently petitioned to protect Clementi Forest from development. Positive public sentiments towards urban wildlife from the biophilia hypothesis I introduced last week was also cited as a key social factor facilitating the recovery of otters in populated areas.
Locals are generally charmed by these charismatic otters and perceive them as welcome additions to the urbanized landscape (Source: National Parks Board)
However, not all animals are equal. While locals are enchanted by adorable otters, they are less welcoming towards 'scarier' animals. Furthermore, human-wildlife interactions become inevitable as habitat destruction from urbanization displaces more wildlife and forces them into residential areas.
After increased boar sightings and attacks in Pasir Ris, 40% of residents surveyed voted to relocate or remove the neighbourhood's boars. Snakes that venture into populated areas are also frequent victims of abuse due to prevailing misconceptions about reptiles.
Mixed public reactions towards wild boars in Pasir Ris (Source: Mothership)
Human-wildlife conflicts and negative attitudes towards the 'less pleasant' side of nature reflect a contradiction to Singapore's near-utopian biophilic ideal of harmonious coexistence with nature, and highlight a key area demanding further scrutiny.
"(Locals) want to see dragonflies and butterflies and hear birds in the morning, but unfortunately that's not how nature works"
Kalai Vanan, Deputy Chief Executive Officer
Animal Concerns, Research and Education Society (ACRES)
A documentary on Singapore's dichotomy of old and new, which also features ACRES' wildlife rescue work and provides some insight on human-wildlife conflicts in Singapore (Source: DW)
Transforming into a 'City in Nature'
Into the future
Continued development is inevitable for Singapore. Marrying the goals of development and conservation in innovative ways will become increasingly pertinent as the population continues to grow. Formulating an integrated biodiversity strategy that encompasses all species, beyond the charismatic few, would help address festering human-wildlife conflicts.
Report: How to conserve Singapore's wildlife in a urban landscape (Source: Channels NewsAsia)
These considerations become critical as Singapore transitions to the next phase of its biophilic journey in 2020:
Transforming into a 'City in Nature'
Despite the challenges, Singapore's consistent yet evolving vision towards biophilic urbanism would propel the country to new innovative heights. I am excited to see how Singapore blossoms into a 'City in Nature'.
Moving towards a City in Nature as the next phase of Singapore's journey towards biophilic urbanism (Source: National Parks Board)
Singapore is also my home country. As a bonus, let me share some of my own snapshots during my wild adventures around Singapore.
Gallery: My own wild adventures around Singapore
Sharing a few photographs I took of Singapore's wildlife, including the elusive Malayan colugo, orb-web spider, saltwater crocodile, olive-backed sunbird chicks (nesting in my balcony!), tokay gecko (non-native), common tree nymph butterfly, and the Malayan water monitor
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